The Scipii Faction

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus is recognised as one of the greatest Roman military leaders of the Roman Republic. His father and his brother also commanded forces during the Second Punic War. He first gained notice while serving under his father (also Publicus Cornelius Scipio) in Spain and was present at Cannae where a Roman Army under Varro was effectively destroyed. Given a proconsular command, he reorganised the Roman army in Spain and began to attack the Carthaginian positions there which were supporting Hannibal in Italy. At the Battle of Ilippa his Roman army of 48,000 men attacked and defeated a numerically superior Carthaginian force of 70,000 led by Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco. This victory allowed him to gain control of all of Spain. 

Elected consul in 205 BC, he advocated an invasion of Africa to take the war to Carthage in much the same way that Hannibal had brought the war to Rome. Although unable to take Utica by siege he did sustain his forces in Africa and was able to force the recall of Hannibal by defeating Hasdrubal Gisco and his ally Syphax at Campi Magni. Hannibal’s return led to the eventual defeat of the Carthiginians at Zama (202BCE). With his victory at Zama, Publius Cornelius Scipio won the honorific suffix of Africanus.

Following the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus served as Legate to his younger brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio during the war with Antiochus of Syria, first in Greece, and later in Asia Minor. Scipio Africanus fell ill during the invasion of Asia Minor and actual command of the army at Magnesia (189BCE), the final battle of the war with Antiochus, fell to Gnaeus Domitius. Despite this, Lucius Cornelius Scipio earned the honorific name of Asiaticus. The son of Lucius Aemilius Paulus was adopted by the eldest son of Scipio Africanus and took the name Publius Cornelius Scipio. His conduct of the final siege of Carthage in the Third Punic War earned him the honorific name of Scipio Africanus Minor, while his victories in Spain during the Numantine War (143-133BCE) earned him a second honorific “Numatinus”.

Parthia

The people known to history as the Parthians were in fact nomads known as the Parni who moved into the province of Parthia from Central Asia during the reigns of Seleucus I (312-281 BCE) and Antiochus I Soter (281-262 BCE). Under their leader, Arasces, Parthia became an independent state during a period of instability within the Seleucid Empire around 250 BCE. It was only later, during the reigns of the Parthian kings Mithridates I (171-128 BCE) and Artanbanus II (128-124 BCE) that the Parthians seized most of the Seleucid territories in Mesopotamia and the east. The last major offensives against the Seleucid realm in Syria, under Mithridates II, led to diplomatic contacts with Rome beginning in 92 BCE.

The Parthians had many great assets but also a number of problems. The Parthians controlled the Great Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean world, which brought them great wealth. On the other hand, Parthian society tended to be decentralised and feudal in nature with various vassal kingdoms within the empire (18 of them according to Pliny the Elder) tolerated and indeed necessary for administration. This created conditions suitable for internal rebellions. These conditions meant that once established the Parthians weren’t really able to expand their empire; instead they became focussed on defending what they had. 

The Parthian’s situation also dictated their military structure. There was no standing army; when a military situation arose a high king such as Mithridates II had to call on subordinate kings, tribal leaders and garrison commanders to raise forces of their “dependents” (the best equivalent is probably serfs) and gather them at a specific place. It also meant that a Parthian ruler couldn’t sustain a long campaign—the troops were needed back home conducting their day to day lives. In this way, the Parthians resemble medieval European states. 

Since the Parthians frequently faced threats on two fronts simultaneously (from nomadic tribes in the north and the east and the Seleucids or the Romans in the west) they needed an army that could move from one end of the empire to the other rapidly. They also knew that any infantry they could muster would have difficulty against mounted tribesmen and could never stand up against Roman Legions or even a Seleucid phalanx. Thus almost all of the Parthian Army was mounted. There were light cavalry, armed with a bow and probably also with swords (but without armour) perfect for engaging an enemy from a distance. Heavy cavalry—the cataphracts—were also available, which carried a heavy compound bow and a lance. The cataphracts and their horses both wore armour. Standard tactics called for the light cavalry to harass the enemy and feign retreats during which the archers would frequently turn in their saddles and fire at the enemy (the famed Parthian shot, which in modern times has been corrupted into the “parting shot”). At that point the cataphracts would attack, again not coming close enough for the infantry to engage them with their spears. Finally, when the enemy was sufficiently weakened the army would surround the survivors and destroy them with volleys of arrows.

The effectiveness of Parthian tactics can be seen at the Battle of Carrhae (53BCE) where the Parthians defeated the Romans under Marcus Licinius Crassus who was part of the First Roman Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey. Crassus had an army of around 36,000 men, mostly heavy infantry supplemented with about 4,000 cavalry and another 4,000 light infantry. His opponent General Suren (or Surenas—it appears not to have been his name but rather his title) had 1,000 cataphracts and 10,000 light cavalry. Following an initial charge by the cataphracts led by Suren personally, the light cavalry took charge, their arrows piercing Roman armour. 

Crassus attempted to break the Parthian attack with a diversion led by his son Publius Licinius Crassus. It was made up of most of his cavalry and archers and 8 cohorts of infantry (between 5,000–6,000 men in total). It failed, and all but 500 were killed, including the younger Crassus. The remnants of the elder Crassus’ force found refuge in the city of Carrhae but it was not supplied sufficiently to withstand a siege. Therefore Crassus led them out of the city during the night. In the morning his much reduced force was found by the Parthians and attacked. Suren offered terms but during a parley between the Parthian and Roman officers a dispute broke out and the Romans were all killed. The remaining Roman soldiers either surrendered or attempted (usually unsuccessfully) to escape. It is estimated that the Romans lost 20,000 dead and about 10,000 captured and sent into slavery. 

The Romans invaded Parthia again in 36 BCE with 16 legions plus cavalry and light troops, a total of 80,000 men under Mark Antony. Antony entered Parthia through Armenia (then a Roman ally, or so it seemed), marched through mountainous regions to negate the Parthian cavalry, focused on besieging cities; in short he did everything in his power to avoid the sort of mistakes that Crassus had made. When he returned to Armenia he had lost 20,000 soldiers including the 10,000 men of his siege train and the two legions guarding it. He lost a further 8,000 men withdrawing from Armenia to Syria. It was not until 20 BCE that Augustus was able to put a pro-Roman king on the Parthian throne (supported by a Roman army) and forge a peace treaty. Peace between the two powers lasted until 116 AD when the Roman Emperor Trajan decisively beat the Parthians, although his victory might have had as much to do with divisions within Parthia as with Roman military prowess.

About the Author

Greg Borisko has been wargaming since the early 80's. He started playing board games (especially Squad Leader) and proceeded to computer games. He is something of a military historian, actually getting Master's in the field, though nobody in the real world really cares. So, Greg went back to technical school to learn electronics. He's the father of a dog who may not be of this world and to a one year old boy. Plans are already in the works to indoctrinate the child to be a fan of the Boston Bruins and Red Sox-just like his dad. Greg currently helps to keep traffic flowing in the greatest city in the Great White North: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.